Making Butter

Jean-Francois Millet's 1855
"Woman Churning Butter"
Metropolitan Museum of Art

And now the dairy claims her choicest care,

And half her household find employment there;

Slow rolls the Churn; its load of cloging cream

At once foregoes its quality and name,

From knotty particles first floating wide,

Congealing butter's dashed from side to side;

New milk around, through flowing coolers stray

And snow-white Curd abounds, and wholesome whey;

(excerpt from Robert Bloomfield's The Farmer's Boy, written in 1800)

Sources

Robert Bloomfield's 1800, The Farmer's Boy

Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Robert Bloomfield"
Henry Stephens quotes this passage in his chapter on the making of butter and cheese in The Book of the Farm, Volume III published in 1844

Further Reading

The Metropolitan Museum of Art 2014, "Woman Churning Butter"

Collections Canada 2006 "Women and Their Work in Upper Canada" by Jane Errington
Nick Mika et al, 2000 Black Creek Pioneer Village: Toronto's Living History Village, read page 25 on the process of making butter in the early 19th century

The Credit, Barter, and Three-Way Systems of Payment

Let's pretend you're living with your family in Upper Canada in the first half of the nineteenth century. You own a productive farm, and keep sheep and chickens in addition to various crops such as apples, wheat, and barley. Life is good - you have everything you need. One day while in the village, you pass by the General Store and lo and behold there's a window full of things you want: Fabrics for making new clothes for the family, spices to make just about everything taste better, and tools that will make farm work easier. Remember, life is good, and you decide to head in to the store. After a few of your items have been wrapped in paper, the shopkeeper gives you the total. How are you going to pay for these luxuries? 

Responding to the needs of their customers, and accepting of the fact that currency was scarce in most rural communities, shopkeepers offered many of their goods on credit. (Fraser, 86) The prices of purchased goods were noted in an account book (ledger) or on a bill.  From time to time, most customers paid all or part of that bill by service, cash or trade.  In order for the credit-based system to work, not only did the customers have to be honest, trustworthy and able to pay off their debts in a timely fashion, but the shop owner had to be equally as honest, trustworthy, and able to bear the various debts of often an entire village.  In many cases, the shop owner was a man in good circumstances and was able to wait until sales of crops or livestock enabled farmers to pay for items purchased throughout the year.

Crysler's Store, Upper Canada Village
Morriston Ontario

A shop could quite easily fail due to bad debts, or the inability of the store owner to collect in a timely manner.  Collection of debts could be tricky for the shop owner.  If he came on too strong, he would lose the customer (and the money). If he was too lenient, he might end up out of business, unable to pay his own debts. Opening a store where family and neighbourly ties are stronger was an effective way to stay in business.  By knowing his customers on a more intimate level, the credit system had a better chance of succeeding. (Fleming, 141) The shop owner could appeal to his friends (who presumably wished him to succeed) to pay off their debts, and could visit them with a kindly reminder when they did not.  Knowing your customers had another advantage, for it allowed the shop owner to “avoid sales to those who would not pay, and to increase sales, especially of goods that carried the highest mark-up, to those most likely to pay”. (McCalla, 401)

There were a number of ways in which a family or individual could repay the store owner for items purchased on credit.  The three most popular methods include payment through service or labour; delayed payment using cash, or payment through trade.  Payment through service or labour included for example, splitting and piling wood for the shop owner, lending the shop owner a horse or ox for a project, or lending skills such as blacksmithing, etc. (Fleming, 127-129) Payment using cash occurred whenever the family or individual had some to spare – usually in the fall of each year, after the “threshing” or the “killing”. (Sherck) It was also not uncommon for the shop owner to institute a monthly collection whereby accounts were required to be settled by the end of each calendar month.

Some debts could be repaid by trading in chickens, eggs, or butter.  In October 1861, James Watson, a shop owner in Lindsay advertised through the local newspaper that he would accept “all kinds of country produce” as payment. (Fleming, 26) A Manilla shop owner, Adam Gordon, also advertised that he would purchase “Wheat, Pork, and other farm produce, at the Highest Market Prices”. (Fleming, 26) Payment through trade was extremely common, but must not be confused with pure bartering.  Each object (usually by weight) had a dollar amount attached to it, and customers did not, for example, simply trade eggs for tea.  Every transaction was entered into the ledgers, and one dollar’s worth of tea must be offset by at least one dollar’s worth of eggs.

There were also many instances where arrangements were made between businesses which allowed for labourers to be paid in credit to the local general store or to a trade, eliminating the need for workers to handle cash:  “Every builder or contractor made an arrangement with the various trades and stores for a line of credit, by which they could pay their workman as much of their wages as possible with the smallest amount of cash.” (Guillet, 240) Worker’s wives would then go and pick up items from the store as needed without the requirement for currency to exchange hands.  The items purchased would simply be deducted from the credit provided by the employer. Likewise, the Three-Way System involved little to no exchange of money.  For example “In Glencarin, Ontario (west of Barrie), millworkers paid for their laundry indirectly. Storekeeper and mill owner M.N. Stephens would deduct a dollar or two from wages and enter that amount as a credit on the laundry woman’s account”. (Fleming, 138)

General Store Interior, Black Creek Pioneer Village
Toronto, Ontario

As communities grew, and the connections between shop owner and neighbour became more distant, the need for payment upfront and in cash increased.  Additionally, the amount of individuals travelling through the province and purchasing goods was also rising.  Itinerant purchasers could little be expected to be tracked down if they did not live in the area, and so they too were expected to pay in cash.  As the cost of some goods also increased, so too did the debts of the shop owners. (Fraser, 90) Eventually, the general store moved away from the credit, trade, and Three-Way systems and adopted the more streamlined cash system.

Sources

W. Hamish Fraser's 1981 The Coming of the Mass Market,1850-1914. 

Michael Gonder Scherck's 1905 Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada. 

R.B. Fleming's 2002 General Stores of Canada:Merchants and Memories. 

Edwin C. Guillet's 1934 Toronto, from Trading Post to Great City. 

McCalla, Douglas. “Retailing in the Countryside: Upper Canadian General Stores in the Mid-Nineteenth Century”. In Business and Economic History, Winter 1997; 26, 2. Pages 393-403.

Mini Review: How the Scots Invented Canada

How the Scots Invented Canada is Ken McGoogan's biographical response to Arthur Herman's 2001 How the Scots Invented the Modern World. Rather than discussing larger themes that effect an international diaspora, McGoogan has opted to narrow the scope to (exactly 60) important Scottish individuals on the Canadian scene. There were a lot to choose from - 13 of our 22 prime ministers have Scottish heritage, not to mention the many explorers, settlers, inventors and visionaries up to present day.

"Early arrivals included explorers Alexander Mackenzie, Simon Fraser and the 'Scotch West Indian', James Douglas. Later, Scots such as Lord Selkirk and John Galt encouraged thousands to immigrate. Nation-builders followed, among them John A. Macdonald, James McGill and the reformer Nellie McClung. Then came the visionaries, Scottish Canadians such as Tommy Douglas, Doris Anderson and Marshall McLuhan, who have turned Canada into a nation that revels in diversity." (From the publisher)

My review of this book is a bit mixed, in that many of the things I find great about Scots are the same things that I dislike, or see as a failing. Maybe balanced is a better word? Here's what I mean:

One of the first things I'd noticed when I was flipping through the book at the store was the amount of archival images that McGoogan has included; portraits, photographs, ephemera, you name it. At the time I thought that was wonderful, and I continued to think that while I was reading until I realized that none of the source information for the images is included. Which archives is it from? Is it on display in a museum or gallery? Who painted that image? The best part about sharing information with others is the possibility that it might actually inspire them to want to learn more. With the lack of photograph/archives credits in Scots I feel like many people (myself included) will be left out in the cold.

This dearth of source information extends to the research as well. There are no footnotes or endnotes... only a suggested reading list in the appendix to let you know where McGoogan's facts might have come from. (I'm one of those people that love reading the footnotes; not just to check sources, but also for small anecdotes or related facts.) That being said, not all books have notes. Some books are not meant for an academic audience, but rather for a popular audience looking for an enjoyable and easy read.

The story-telling quality that McGoogan gives to his books is enjoyed so much that he was the recipient of the 2006 Pierre Berton Award for popularising Canadian history. Now, while I do enjoy McGoogan's more informal take on historic personalities and their contributions to Canadian society, I could do without the personal anecdotes of his own Scottish vacations and family connections. I don't think that these particular extras add to the reader's understanding of the book, and indeed at times made me feel like I had been tricked into watching a slideshow of someone else's vacation. That being said, I understand that many might find McGoogan's personal approach in this regard an accessible way to break into Canadian/Scottish history.

I would recommend this book to a casual reader with an interest in history - someone looking to increase their general knowledge in all things Canadian. As far as using the book for academic means, I would treat it the same way I treat Wikipedia; it's the perfect jumping off point for ideas and research, but should by no means be your only source.

Sources
Harper Collins Canada, 2014 "How the Scots Invented Canada"
Roy MacSkimming's 2010 Globe and Mail Review of How the Scots Invented Canada
D. Grant Black's 2010 Toronto Star Review of How the Scots Invented Canada
Canada's History Magazine Online 2014, "Ken McGoogan: 2006 Pierre Berton Award Winner"

Further Reading
You can find your own copy of How the Scots Invented Canada at Amazon or Chapters.
Visit Ken McGoogan's Blog here
University of Sheffield, History Matters 2013, "Writing Popular History: Comfortable, Unchallenging Nostalgia-Fodder?"
Harvard University, Harvard Guide to Using Sources 2014, "What's Wrong with Wikipedia?"

Model Railway and Local History

This past weekend I visited the St. Jacobs and Aberfoyle Model Railway in St. Jacobs, Ontario. The 3,000 square foot display focuses on Southern Ontario in the 1950s, and includes various urban and rural scenes (during the day and night).

The detail in each of the hand-made elements of this model is astounding, and I spent a great deal of time examining each building (in many cases there were little people going about their "lives" inside). The most endearing features of the exhibit, however, are the many nods to local life, geography, and architecture. Ah nostalgia!

A Mennonite barn raising is in progress next to a small farm and sawmill, while a man and a cat watch from the farmhouse porch. At a small campsite a tent has been pitched and a bear spies on a family as they sit around a small campfire. The Niagara Escarpment is an integral feature of the display, and the cliffs and foliage act as the perfect canvas for the scenes below.

In the more urban sections of the model railway, I was drawn immediately to a building that many in Galt (Cambridge) would recognize: The Galt Post Office.



"Built between 1884 and 1887, the Former Galt Post Office served an important function as the home of the post office, customs, and other government services. This post office was one of the many buildings erected during the course of a program of government construction in small communities and towns across Canada under the direction of Thomas Fuller, Chief Architect of the Department of Public Works from 1881 to 1896. The high standard of design imposed by Fuller is evident in the former Galt Post Office. Typical of his designs, the building features an round-arched entrance portico, symmetrical twin façades and a clock tower, in this case uniquely adapted to be visible from both the street and the Grand River. The steeply pitched mansard roof, as well as the use of contrasting colours and textures and the accomplished stonework, come together to create a striking blend of the Gothic, Second Empire and Romanesque styles." (HP)

Of course I could not cap off this trip to the Model Railway without a stop in Galt for dinner right across from the old post office - this time in full scale.

I would absolutely recommend that everyone who has the opportunity to visit the Model Railway should do so. Admission is $8 for adults, and the volunteer staff are amazing. When you're done exploring you can head out and spend the rest of the day in St. Jacobs, making sure of course to stop at A Touch of Scotland for some mushy peas, tartans, and other Scottish treats.

Sources

St. Jacobs and Aberfoyle Model Railway Website, 2014

Cambridge Times 2013, "A little Cambridge moves down the track, stops in St. Jacobs"

(HP) Canada's Historic Places, 2014 "Former Galt Post Office National Historic Site of Canada"

Further Reading
Canadian Encyclopedia Online, 2013 "Thomas Fuller"
Your Heritage Waterloo Region, 2014 "Old Galt Post Office" Search Results for some great images

From the Pen of William Dickson

The Honourable William Dickson was educated, eloquent, and greatly opinionated (in addition to his also being the founder of the Township of Dumfries, and of Galt); Three qualities which were often demonstrated in his personal correspondence and at various speaking engagements. His sentiments are so clear that you can almost picture him preaching the benefits of a conservative and obedient life under the Crown (the dour expression in the photo below should assist you should you need inspiration). I always find learning about history through the eyes and pens of its participants particularly appealing. Thus, the following are excerpts from a speech delivered to his fellow Galtonians in 1839 on the occasion of his 70th birthday. His words give us a glimpse into his world, and into his mind, on all things political, social, and emotional.*

On the Difficulties of Settlement
"Embarrassments and difficulties beset me - despondency sometimes showed her unwelcome visage." (JY, 176)

"Many of you have had your days and nights of gloom - you have encountered privations, toil, trouble, and uphill exertions, but many of you have attained the summit of your wishes, and others are in a progressive advance." (JY, 177)

On the creation of Upper Canada in 1791

"I was then at Niagara, when General Simcoe first addressed the assembled Legislature; and well do I remember the joy and enthusiasm which pervaded all classes and ranks, on such a boon being granted." (JY, 177)

On Upper Canadian prosperity
"If the people of Upper Canada are not happy and contented, it must mainly be their own fault." (JY, 181)

On Dumfries / Galt
"... I entertain, and shall always continue to feel, a lively interest in all that relates to Dumfries; and I have especial pleasure in receiving the evidence of the satisfaction and prosperity which seems to prevail among its inhabitants." (JY, 173)

On the French and politics
"The Constitution and form of Government that was at that time conferred on the Canadas has worked well in practice in Upper Canada, and would have worked equally well in Lower Canada, had not the malignant, ambitious, and selfish French demagogues poisoned the minds of an illiterate peasantry - inducing them at length to throw off the mask of moderation, and factiously to resort to insurrection, treason, and rebellion." (JY, 177-178)

On the United States and civil war
"Reflecting on the change in the national character of the descendants of British subjects, I am almost warranted in adopting an opinion that the elective principle, carried on to an extreme stretch, has changed the pulse of men and inoculated the people of the United States with principles destructive of liberty and good government, and that the time may yet arrive, when, on the revolving wheels of their government, the clog of despotism may be found not to be that far distant from that of democracy, and when civil broils and a servile war may madden to a contest, which, for the sake of humanity, may kind Providence in his mercy avert." (JY, 180)

*As these are excerpts, they are taken somewhat out of their original context. To fully understand his words, be sure to check the source material referenced.

Other interesting Dickson facts
- He was challenged to a duel in 1808 by a colleague, Mr. Weeks, who had felt he had been publicly insulted by him. Dickson won, and Mr. Weeks died three hours later. (JY, 16)
- He was captured in Niagara-on-the-Lake (at that time known simply as Niagara) by American forces in June 1813 and jailed in Albany until the following January. When he returned he found his house, and the village had been razed.(JK)
- He was a member of the Family Compact

Sources:
(JK) James E. Kerr's 1916, "Sketch of the Life of the Honourable William Dickson"
(JY) James Young's 1880, "Reminiscences of the Early History of Galt and the Settlement of Dumfries in the Province of Ontario"

Further Reading:
Dictionary of Canadian Biography 2014, "William Dickson"
Cambridge Archives and Records Centre, "Honourable William Dickson"